Comprehensive Integrated Athletic Training
For a tennis player to perform at their best, they must have just the right mix of aerobic and anaerobic endurance, explosive strength and power, balance in speed off the mark and agility. The amount of strength, speed, agility and flexibility conditioning a player is prepared to undertake has been linked to the standard they play at, in which a tennis match is characterized by repeated bouts of powered, high-intensity activities. Even though a typical rally may last average about 6 seconds, and not much more than 10 seconds even on a clay court, and between points there is the luxury of up to 25 seconds rest - 90 seconds if it's a changeover, the overall physical demand of tennis is closer to a prolonged moderate-intensity exercise (such as distance running) than a true multi-sprint sport (such as soccer), with short-bursts of high-intensity sprints and plyometrics. Therefore, understanding the relationship of the integrated training components will help trainers and coaches to better plan and apply the necessary training protocols to develop their players.
An integrated training approach then is a comprehensive training utilizing all the components of an athletic sport performance program. These components are flexibility training, cardiorespiratory training, resistance training, core training, balance training, plyometric training, and speed, agility quickness (SAQ) training. Each component is integrated and does not work in isolation as most strength and conditioning program would promote (Clark, Sutton, & Lucett, 2015). The goal of an integrated training approach is to improve functional strength and neuromuscular efficiency through the stabilization, strength, and power phases (Clark et al., 2015). These components are integrated, therefore, training in one component would also improve a certain aspect in a related component, which this article will briefly review each component with a few selected research articles pertaining to each component.
Flexibility Training
Flexibility training is one of the integrated training components in enhancing optimal athletic performance (Clark et al., 2015). The goal of flexibility is enhancing and improving joint range of motion (ROM) (Gelder & Bartz, 2011) and to promote optimum neuromuscular efficiency for functional sport performance (Clark et al., 2015). The resulting benefits of flexibility training will help decrease chance of injury, correct joint and muscle imbalance, and, of course, enhancing strength and power (Clark et al., 2015). Despite many forms of stretches available to improve athletic performance, knowing the types and timing of implementation can prove difficult for many trainers (Clark et al., 2015).
Research has shown, for instance, that static stretching (SS) prior to strength or dynamic exercises decreases muscular strength, and perhaps power and quickness (Gelder & Bartz, 2011; Clark et al., 2015). As Gelder & Bartz (2011) confirm that acute SS decreases strength, anaerobic power, and sprinting time, while dynamic stretching (DS) increases strength, power, and decreases linear sprinting agility time in 60 male basketball players. It is not a surprise the finding sees tremendous improvement in agility in DS group versus the SS and the no-stretch (NS) groups. As theorized the SS and NS groups results illustrate no significant differences in improvement of agility (Gelder & Bartz, 2011). Thus, in this case, implementing a flexibility and type of stretches using DS is strongly recommended for rapid change of direction sports (Gelder & Bartz, 2011).
Flexibility training is one of the integrated training components in enhancing optimal athletic performance (Clark et al., 2015). The goal of flexibility is enhancing and improving joint range of motion (ROM) (Gelder & Bartz, 2011) and to promote optimum neuromuscular efficiency for functional sport performance (Clark et al., 2015). The resulting benefits of flexibility training will help decrease chance of injury, correct joint and muscle imbalance, and, of course, enhancing strength and power (Clark et al., 2015). Despite many forms of stretches available to improve athletic performance, knowing the types and timing of implementation can prove difficult for many trainers (Clark et al., 2015).
Research has shown, for instance, that static stretching (SS) prior to strength or dynamic exercises decreases muscular strength, and perhaps power and quickness (Gelder & Bartz, 2011; Clark et al., 2015). As Gelder & Bartz (2011) confirm that acute SS decreases strength, anaerobic power, and sprinting time, while dynamic stretching (DS) increases strength, power, and decreases linear sprinting agility time in 60 male basketball players. It is not a surprise the finding sees tremendous improvement in agility in DS group versus the SS and the no-stretch (NS) groups. As theorized the SS and NS groups results illustrate no significant differences in improvement of agility (Gelder & Bartz, 2011). Thus, in this case, implementing a flexibility and type of stretches using DS is strongly recommended for rapid change of direction sports (Gelder & Bartz, 2011).
Cardiorespiratory Training
Cardiorespiratory training (CRT) is another component in the integrated training model to build a well-rounded athlete. The aim of CRT is to build a solid cardiorespiratory base, which will enhance training performance in other training components, to reduce mental anxiety that comes from fatigue and loss of concentration, and, for many, to maintain a desired weight (Clark et al., 2015). Though the idea is to build a strong cardiovascular aerobic base, the anaerobic system is also needed to be trained at the same time to reap the most out of CRT (Clark et al., 2015). However, the most challenging aspect of building a solid aerobic base is finding new exercises for the athlete to be motivated to repeat (White, Rothenberger, Hunt, & Goss, 2016), which leads to improvement in cardiovascular endurance (Clark et al., 2015).
White et al., (2016) explored CRT responses in 32 children (9.3 ± 0.2) based on their affects and cardiorespiratory fitness using physical activities (PA) in structured gym activities (SGA)—games that involved dodging, chasing, and fleeing—and traditional aerobic exercises (TAE)—treadmill, cycle ergometer, and elliptical exercises (White et al., 2016). Their study finds that pleasure affects were higher among the group in the SGA, but low cardiorespiratory improvement; while the TAE group show significant increase in cardiorespiratory fitness (White et al., 2016). Accordingly, the interesting deductive fact is children (or athletes) who find a PA pleasurable will most likely to increase participation and repetition (Clark et al., 2015), which in the long term, would improve cardiorespiratory baseline (White et al., 2016).
Cardiorespiratory training (CRT) is another component in the integrated training model to build a well-rounded athlete. The aim of CRT is to build a solid cardiorespiratory base, which will enhance training performance in other training components, to reduce mental anxiety that comes from fatigue and loss of concentration, and, for many, to maintain a desired weight (Clark et al., 2015). Though the idea is to build a strong cardiovascular aerobic base, the anaerobic system is also needed to be trained at the same time to reap the most out of CRT (Clark et al., 2015). However, the most challenging aspect of building a solid aerobic base is finding new exercises for the athlete to be motivated to repeat (White, Rothenberger, Hunt, & Goss, 2016), which leads to improvement in cardiovascular endurance (Clark et al., 2015).
White et al., (2016) explored CRT responses in 32 children (9.3 ± 0.2) based on their affects and cardiorespiratory fitness using physical activities (PA) in structured gym activities (SGA)—games that involved dodging, chasing, and fleeing—and traditional aerobic exercises (TAE)—treadmill, cycle ergometer, and elliptical exercises (White et al., 2016). Their study finds that pleasure affects were higher among the group in the SGA, but low cardiorespiratory improvement; while the TAE group show significant increase in cardiorespiratory fitness (White et al., 2016). Accordingly, the interesting deductive fact is children (or athletes) who find a PA pleasurable will most likely to increase participation and repetition (Clark et al., 2015), which in the long term, would improve cardiorespiratory baseline (White et al., 2016).
Resistance Training
Whatever the goal of an athlete, resistance training (RT) aims to make an athlete to be faster and stronger, or bigger and leaner, depending on the imposed demand of the specific type for adaptation (Clark et al., 2015). The principles of specificity, overload, variation, individualization, and adaption all mean to put the physical body under resistance so that mechanical, neuromuscular, and metabolic adaptation can occur (Clark et al., 2015). For instance, if an athlete wishes to gain more endurance in a tennis swing, then working the arms swinging with light weights, but high repetitions will result in endurance. On the other hand, if the goal is to gain maximum strength, then heavy weights are needed (Clark et al., 2015). Nevertheless, there is resistance to both modes of the exercises.
Like other integral training components to elicit performance, RT is widely accepted to increase strength and power in athletes (Clark et al., 2015), but in youth and younger athletes, the adaptation before full maturation could be questioned and need more research (Moran et al., 2016). The stabilization and endurance phases can induce intramuscular and intermuscular coordination, but maximal strength training with boys without awareness of their maturation level would be ineffective (Moran et al., 2016). It is shown that RT strength adaptation in adolescent boys (ages 10-18) is at its highest during or after peak height velocity (Moran et al., 2016). This finding should bring awareness to trainers and coaches who works with youth adolescent boys where RT strength training is sensitive to physiological maturity status (Moran et al., 2016).
Whatever the goal of an athlete, resistance training (RT) aims to make an athlete to be faster and stronger, or bigger and leaner, depending on the imposed demand of the specific type for adaptation (Clark et al., 2015). The principles of specificity, overload, variation, individualization, and adaption all mean to put the physical body under resistance so that mechanical, neuromuscular, and metabolic adaptation can occur (Clark et al., 2015). For instance, if an athlete wishes to gain more endurance in a tennis swing, then working the arms swinging with light weights, but high repetitions will result in endurance. On the other hand, if the goal is to gain maximum strength, then heavy weights are needed (Clark et al., 2015). Nevertheless, there is resistance to both modes of the exercises.
Like other integral training components to elicit performance, RT is widely accepted to increase strength and power in athletes (Clark et al., 2015), but in youth and younger athletes, the adaptation before full maturation could be questioned and need more research (Moran et al., 2016). The stabilization and endurance phases can induce intramuscular and intermuscular coordination, but maximal strength training with boys without awareness of their maturation level would be ineffective (Moran et al., 2016). It is shown that RT strength adaptation in adolescent boys (ages 10-18) is at its highest during or after peak height velocity (Moran et al., 2016). This finding should bring awareness to trainers and coaches who works with youth adolescent boys where RT strength training is sensitive to physiological maturity status (Moran et al., 2016).
Core Training
The lumbo-pelvic-hip complex (LPHC) makes up the core (Basnet & Gupta, 2013). The core musculature—local and global stabilizers—works to maintain dynamic balance, acceleration, and deceleration during dynamic movements (Clark et al., 2015). Because the core is at the junction between the upper and the lower extremities (Basnet & Gupta, 2013; Clark et al., 2015), enhanced core stability will improve strength, power, and neuromuscular control, which leads to efficient movements (Clark et al., 2015). In addition, because the core acts as dynamic stabilizer, balance performance seems to directly correlate with strong core (Clark et al., 2015). In fact, balance training involves training the core (Basnet & Gupta, 2013).
In a randomized study by Basnet & Gupta (2013) where male and female participants, ages 18-25, received either balance training or core training for once a day, 6 days per week for 2 weeks. The results reveal that core training improves dynamic postural control and overall dynamic stability. The balance training also achieves the same positive results with static postural control; however, the effect of adaptation for balance training needs longer duration to be effective (Basnet & Gupta, 2013).
Core stabilization, therefore, is especially important when quick and precise dynamic movements are required, because the sequential kinetic activation between the upper and lower extremities passes through the core to maintain optimum performance (Basnet & Gupta, 2013; Clark et al., 2015). Future research or experiment should combine balance and core training to understand the maximum effects in dynamic and static postural performance (Basnet & Gupta, 2013).
The lumbo-pelvic-hip complex (LPHC) makes up the core (Basnet & Gupta, 2013). The core musculature—local and global stabilizers—works to maintain dynamic balance, acceleration, and deceleration during dynamic movements (Clark et al., 2015). Because the core is at the junction between the upper and the lower extremities (Basnet & Gupta, 2013; Clark et al., 2015), enhanced core stability will improve strength, power, and neuromuscular control, which leads to efficient movements (Clark et al., 2015). In addition, because the core acts as dynamic stabilizer, balance performance seems to directly correlate with strong core (Clark et al., 2015). In fact, balance training involves training the core (Basnet & Gupta, 2013).
In a randomized study by Basnet & Gupta (2013) where male and female participants, ages 18-25, received either balance training or core training for once a day, 6 days per week for 2 weeks. The results reveal that core training improves dynamic postural control and overall dynamic stability. The balance training also achieves the same positive results with static postural control; however, the effect of adaptation for balance training needs longer duration to be effective (Basnet & Gupta, 2013).
Core stabilization, therefore, is especially important when quick and precise dynamic movements are required, because the sequential kinetic activation between the upper and lower extremities passes through the core to maintain optimum performance (Basnet & Gupta, 2013; Clark et al., 2015). Future research or experiment should combine balance and core training to understand the maximum effects in dynamic and static postural performance (Basnet & Gupta, 2013).
Balance Training
Investigating the improvement of balance of 30 Taekwondo Poomsae athletes through proprioceptive training and low-load lower-limb strength training, Yoo et al. (2018) measured base of support (BoS), center of mass (CoM), and displacement of center of pressure (CoP) during the performance of Hakdariseogi, which required an athlete to stand on one leg. The six-week intervention had two groups—proprioception training or lower-limb strength training—performing various exercises relating to the training protocols. The proprioception trainings involved 18 various exercises such as standing on one leg while throwing and catching a ball, holding the position for 60 seconds per repetition, for three sets. In contrast, the strength training group has the athletes exercised with squats, deadlifts, lunges, leg extensions, leg curls, etc. (Yoo et al., 2018). The researchers found that both lower-limb strength training and proprioceptive training improved these Taekwondo Poomsae athletes (Yoo et al., 2018).
Regardless of skills in power or strength, balance—achieved through passive and active restraints of the muscular system—remains one of the important factors to maintain optimal postural stability in both static and dynamic environment (Clark et al., 2015; Yoo et al., 2018). Essentially, balance is the ability for the body to maintain the center of gravity (CoM) through constant proprioceptive feedback (Clark et al., 2015; Yoo et al., 2018). In training for strength stabilization, it seems to also improve muscular stabilization, which improves balance performance (Yoo et al., 2018).
However, inefficient neuromuscular stabilization will result in improper balance that subsequently alters stability control, which leads to compensation in synergistic muscles, which leads to decreased performance and increased chance of injury (Clark et al., 2015). Thus, training for balance, along with low-load strength training, will improve neuromuscular efficiency and stimulate joint and muscle receptors (Yoo et al., 2018), which will improve an athlete’s proprioception balance performance (Clark et al., 2015; Yoo et al., 2018).
Investigating the improvement of balance of 30 Taekwondo Poomsae athletes through proprioceptive training and low-load lower-limb strength training, Yoo et al. (2018) measured base of support (BoS), center of mass (CoM), and displacement of center of pressure (CoP) during the performance of Hakdariseogi, which required an athlete to stand on one leg. The six-week intervention had two groups—proprioception training or lower-limb strength training—performing various exercises relating to the training protocols. The proprioception trainings involved 18 various exercises such as standing on one leg while throwing and catching a ball, holding the position for 60 seconds per repetition, for three sets. In contrast, the strength training group has the athletes exercised with squats, deadlifts, lunges, leg extensions, leg curls, etc. (Yoo et al., 2018). The researchers found that both lower-limb strength training and proprioceptive training improved these Taekwondo Poomsae athletes (Yoo et al., 2018).
Regardless of skills in power or strength, balance—achieved through passive and active restraints of the muscular system—remains one of the important factors to maintain optimal postural stability in both static and dynamic environment (Clark et al., 2015; Yoo et al., 2018). Essentially, balance is the ability for the body to maintain the center of gravity (CoM) through constant proprioceptive feedback (Clark et al., 2015; Yoo et al., 2018). In training for strength stabilization, it seems to also improve muscular stabilization, which improves balance performance (Yoo et al., 2018).
However, inefficient neuromuscular stabilization will result in improper balance that subsequently alters stability control, which leads to compensation in synergistic muscles, which leads to decreased performance and increased chance of injury (Clark et al., 2015). Thus, training for balance, along with low-load strength training, will improve neuromuscular efficiency and stimulate joint and muscle receptors (Yoo et al., 2018), which will improve an athlete’s proprioception balance performance (Clark et al., 2015; Yoo et al., 2018).
Plyometric Training
Plyometric training (PT) allows the muscles to produce maximum amount of force in the shortest amount time (Clark et al., 2015). For many athletes, this type of training is used in reactive training for speed and quickness (Clark et al., 2015). Plyometric training, however, does more to provide neuromuscular efficiency during normal functional activities through the enhancement of motor learning so that the central nervous system (CNS) can set a higher rate of response to functional movements (Clark et al., 2015).
In a study using PT to improve jumping performance and skeletal muscle contractile properties in 23 senior adults (age 66.7 ± 5.2 years old), Zubac et al. (2019) studied the effects in an 8-week PT intervention measuring countermovement jump (CMJ) heights, take-off velocity, and Tensiomyography (TMG). With 60 minutes per sessions, three times per week, for eight weeks, of bouncing and hoping aiming for maximum heights with minimum ground contact time (Zubac, Paravlic, Koren, Felicita, & Simunic, 2019).
The results indicated, despite resistance training was preferred by many professional trainers, supervised PT training group in seniors improved significantly. CMJ height and take-off velocity improved by 14.2% (p=.001) and 8.2% (p=.01) in the PT group, respectively (Zubac et al., 2019). The muscle contractile time were also decreased significantly after PT training (Clark et al., 2015; Zubac et al., 2019). Therefore, taken all together, PT could be a resistance training substitute to maintain muscle contractile properties in active healthy seniors. However, a safe and supervised program will also improve lower-limb strength and power, which improving seniors in their daily functional movements (Zubac et al., 2019).
Plyometric training (PT) allows the muscles to produce maximum amount of force in the shortest amount time (Clark et al., 2015). For many athletes, this type of training is used in reactive training for speed and quickness (Clark et al., 2015). Plyometric training, however, does more to provide neuromuscular efficiency during normal functional activities through the enhancement of motor learning so that the central nervous system (CNS) can set a higher rate of response to functional movements (Clark et al., 2015).
In a study using PT to improve jumping performance and skeletal muscle contractile properties in 23 senior adults (age 66.7 ± 5.2 years old), Zubac et al. (2019) studied the effects in an 8-week PT intervention measuring countermovement jump (CMJ) heights, take-off velocity, and Tensiomyography (TMG). With 60 minutes per sessions, three times per week, for eight weeks, of bouncing and hoping aiming for maximum heights with minimum ground contact time (Zubac, Paravlic, Koren, Felicita, & Simunic, 2019).
The results indicated, despite resistance training was preferred by many professional trainers, supervised PT training group in seniors improved significantly. CMJ height and take-off velocity improved by 14.2% (p=.001) and 8.2% (p=.01) in the PT group, respectively (Zubac et al., 2019). The muscle contractile time were also decreased significantly after PT training (Clark et al., 2015; Zubac et al., 2019). Therefore, taken all together, PT could be a resistance training substitute to maintain muscle contractile properties in active healthy seniors. However, a safe and supervised program will also improve lower-limb strength and power, which improving seniors in their daily functional movements (Zubac et al., 2019).
SAQ Training
Speed, agility, and quickness (SAQ) plays an important role in the integrated training of an athlete’s performance (Clark et al., 2015). Because SAQ training component has the plyometric (reactive) element to form the general athletic base, SAQ training is more sport specific in its implementation (Clark et al., 2015). In other words, to build speed and reactive quickness, proper movements are learned and stabilized, then specific sport movements and maneuvers are carefully trained to improve timing and response (Clark et al., 2015).
Mathisen & Pettersen (2015) reported that training plyometric short-powerful speed skills and change of direction (agility) exercises, as compared to just training with small-sided games, in regional youth female soccer players (age 15.5 ± 0.7) improved linear sprinting time and agility performance in these female soccer players (Mathisen & Pettersen, 2015). Despite these training bursts also include resisted sprints, and that training was one hour, once per week for 8 weeks, the sprint bursts improved in 10 m, 20 m, agility by 4.1%, 3.2%, and 5.2%, respectively (Mathisen & Pettersen, 2015).
Speed, agility, and quickness (SAQ) plays an important role in the integrated training of an athlete’s performance (Clark et al., 2015). Because SAQ training component has the plyometric (reactive) element to form the general athletic base, SAQ training is more sport specific in its implementation (Clark et al., 2015). In other words, to build speed and reactive quickness, proper movements are learned and stabilized, then specific sport movements and maneuvers are carefully trained to improve timing and response (Clark et al., 2015).
Mathisen & Pettersen (2015) reported that training plyometric short-powerful speed skills and change of direction (agility) exercises, as compared to just training with small-sided games, in regional youth female soccer players (age 15.5 ± 0.7) improved linear sprinting time and agility performance in these female soccer players (Mathisen & Pettersen, 2015). Despite these training bursts also include resisted sprints, and that training was one hour, once per week for 8 weeks, the sprint bursts improved in 10 m, 20 m, agility by 4.1%, 3.2%, and 5.2%, respectively (Mathisen & Pettersen, 2015).
Conclusion
Thinking in terms of tennis athletic development, the human movement system (HMS) moves in all planes of motion and every functional movements, whether highly precise athletic maneuvers or daily physical activities, are integrated through optimal functional strength and neuromuscular efficiency (Clark et al., 2015). The HMS and the human body systems do not function in isolation, but rather interdependently from every component surveyed above. For instance, core training will improve balance (Basnet & Gupta, 2013); while plyometric training will improve SAQ training (Clark et al., 2015; Mathisen & Pettersen, 2015; Zubac et al., 2019). The cardiorespiratory training will also form a stabilized aerobic base that other training could benefit, because without it, resistance training for muscular endurance, for example, would be difficult and could lead to injuries and other negative effects (Clark et al., 2015; White et al., 2016). Therefore, for optimum muscle balance, function, and posture, an integrated training with the above components will optimize the CNS to achieve optimum tennis performance.
Thinking in terms of tennis athletic development, the human movement system (HMS) moves in all planes of motion and every functional movements, whether highly precise athletic maneuvers or daily physical activities, are integrated through optimal functional strength and neuromuscular efficiency (Clark et al., 2015). The HMS and the human body systems do not function in isolation, but rather interdependently from every component surveyed above. For instance, core training will improve balance (Basnet & Gupta, 2013); while plyometric training will improve SAQ training (Clark et al., 2015; Mathisen & Pettersen, 2015; Zubac et al., 2019). The cardiorespiratory training will also form a stabilized aerobic base that other training could benefit, because without it, resistance training for muscular endurance, for example, would be difficult and could lead to injuries and other negative effects (Clark et al., 2015; White et al., 2016). Therefore, for optimum muscle balance, function, and posture, an integrated training with the above components will optimize the CNS to achieve optimum tennis performance.
References
Basnet, R., & Gupta, N. (2013). Effect of core stabilization and balance-training program on dynamic balance. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy & Occupational Therapy, 7(1), 218-222.
Clark, M., Sutton, B. G., & Lucett, S. (2015). NASM essentials of sports performance training. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Gelder, L. H., & Bartz, S. D. (2011). The effect of acute stretching on agility performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(11), 3014-3021. doi:10.1519/jsc.0b013e318212e42b
Mathisen, G. E., & Pettersen, S. A. (2015). The effect of speed training on sprint and agility performance in 15-year-old female soccer players. LASE Journal of Sport Science, 6(1), 61-70. doi:10.1515/ljss-2016-0006
Moran, J., Sandercock, G. R., Ramírez-Campillo, R., Meylan, C., Collison, J., & Parry, D. A. (2016). A meta-analysis of maturation-related variation in adolescent boy athletes’ adaptations to short-term resistance training. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(11), 1041-1051. doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1209306
White, D., Rothenberger, S., Hunt, L., Goss, F., & White, D. (2016). Comparison of affect and cardiorespiratory training responses between structured gym activities and traditional aerobic exercise in children. International Journal of Exercise Science, 9(1), 16–25.
Yoo, S., Park, S., Yoon, S., Lim, H. S., & Ryu, J. (2018). Comparison of proprioceptive training and muscular strength training to improve balance ability of taekwondo poomsae athletes: A randomized controlled trials. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 17, 445-454.
Zubac, D., Paravlic, A., Koren, K., Felicita, U., & Simunic, B. (2019). Plyometric exercise improves jumping performance and skeletal muscle contractile properties in seniors. Journal of Musculoskeletal and Nueronal Interaction, 19(1), 38-49.
Basnet, R., & Gupta, N. (2013). Effect of core stabilization and balance-training program on dynamic balance. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy & Occupational Therapy, 7(1), 218-222.
Clark, M., Sutton, B. G., & Lucett, S. (2015). NASM essentials of sports performance training. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Gelder, L. H., & Bartz, S. D. (2011). The effect of acute stretching on agility performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(11), 3014-3021. doi:10.1519/jsc.0b013e318212e42b
Mathisen, G. E., & Pettersen, S. A. (2015). The effect of speed training on sprint and agility performance in 15-year-old female soccer players. LASE Journal of Sport Science, 6(1), 61-70. doi:10.1515/ljss-2016-0006
Moran, J., Sandercock, G. R., Ramírez-Campillo, R., Meylan, C., Collison, J., & Parry, D. A. (2016). A meta-analysis of maturation-related variation in adolescent boy athletes’ adaptations to short-term resistance training. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(11), 1041-1051. doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1209306
White, D., Rothenberger, S., Hunt, L., Goss, F., & White, D. (2016). Comparison of affect and cardiorespiratory training responses between structured gym activities and traditional aerobic exercise in children. International Journal of Exercise Science, 9(1), 16–25.
Yoo, S., Park, S., Yoon, S., Lim, H. S., & Ryu, J. (2018). Comparison of proprioceptive training and muscular strength training to improve balance ability of taekwondo poomsae athletes: A randomized controlled trials. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 17, 445-454.
Zubac, D., Paravlic, A., Koren, K., Felicita, U., & Simunic, B. (2019). Plyometric exercise improves jumping performance and skeletal muscle contractile properties in seniors. Journal of Musculoskeletal and Nueronal Interaction, 19(1), 38-49.
